Alternative Batteries and Fuel Cells 238

alkaline fuel cells

A device that uses the chemical energy of either hydrogen or ammonia to produce energy. An alkaline fuel cell creates energy in the form of electricity and releases water as a byproduct.

ammonia

A toxic and corrosive gas compound with a characteristically pungent odor. Ammonia has traditionally been used as a fertilizer but is now being looked at as a fuel alternative.

ammonia fuel cell

A device that uses the chemical energy of ammonia to produce electrical energy. An ammonia fuel cell creates energy in the form of electricity and releases nitrogen and water as byproducts.

anode

The electrode in a cell that holds a negative charge when discharging. The anode is the electrode from which energy leaves to form electricity.

battery chemistries

The combination of elements present in a battery’s cathode, anode, and electrolyte. Battery chemistry is also referred to as electrochemistry.

biogas

A renewable energy source produced from organic matter, such as agricultural, animal, or food waste. Biogas can be used to fuel certain fuel cells.

carbon

C. A common, strong, nonmetallic element. Carbon is the only element present in graphite.

carbon dioxide

CO₂. A colorless, odorless gas produced by burning or decaying materials and by respiration. Carbon dioxide emissions contribute to global warming.

cathode

The electrode in a cell that holes a positive charge when discharging. The cathode is the electrode where energy enters to form electricity.

ceramic

A hard, brittle material that can withstand high temperatures and resist corrosion. Ceramic electrolytes are often used in solid-state batteries and solid-oxide fuel cells.

combust

To catch fire and burn. Combustion is one of the greatest safety hazards of Li-ion batteries.

compound

A substance consisting of the atoms of two or more different elements in fixed proportions. Compounds used in lithium batteries include lithium iron phosphate and lithium manganese oxide.

cycles

One complete discharge and recharge. Cycle life indicates how many times a rechargeable battery can cycle before failing.

decarbonization

The reduction or removal of carbon dioxide emissions from processes including manufacturing and energy production. Decarbonization can decrease the rate of global warming and help regulate extreme weather events.

dendrites

A projection of metal that builds up on the surface of lithium. Dendrites are capable of penetrating the electrolyte and crossing from one side of the battery cell to the other, causing short circuits.

direct recycling

A recycling method that involves rejuvenating a battery’s cathode without breaking it down. Direct recycling restores a battery’s lithium, which can cut back on lithium mining practices.

discharges

To release electrical energy. A Li-S battery takes longer to discharge than a Li-ion battery.

electric vehicles

EVs. A vehicle that is propelled by an electric motor that draws its power from a battery. Electric vehicles require high-energy, lightweight, rechargeable batteries.

electrical energy

A form of energy created by the movement of electrons. Electrical energy can be converted into light, heat, or motion.

electrochemical reaction

The process of chemicals interacting and producing an electric current. Electrochemical reactions take place in batteries and fuel cells to produce energy that powers electric vehicles.

electrolyte

A conductive solution containing an acid, an alkaline, or a salt. The electrolyte is situated between the anode and cathode in a cell.

elements

A basic form of a substance that cannot be further subdivided by chemical methods. Elements include substances such as oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon.

energy density

A measurement of how much energy a battery can supply per unit of volume. High energy density allows small batteries to supply large amounts of energy.

energy independence

A state in which a country does not need to import energy resources to meet its energy needs. Energy independence can be obtained through the use of renewable energy resources, improving energy efficiency in infrastructure, increasing energy storage capabilities, and updating the electrical grid.

energy storage systems

A device or group of devices capable of storing energy in order to supply electrical energy at a later time. Energy storage systems receive energy through many means, such as solar power, hydropower, and batteries.

ethanol

A liquid fuel created from plant materials that often contains alcohol. Ethanol can be used in certain fuel cells.

EVs

Electric vehicles. A vehicle that is propelled by an electric motor that draws its power from a battery. Electric vehicles require high-energy, lightweight, rechargeable batteries.

extraction

The process of mining and retrieving valuable elements and minerals from the earth. Extraction can cause many environmental harms, such as pollution.

fuel

A material that undergoes a reaction to produces power. Fuel may take many forms, such as gasoline or hydrogen.

fuel cell stacks

A collection of fuel cells arranged together. Fuel cell stacks generate electrical energy that power fuel cell vehicles.

fuel cells

A device that converts chemical energy from gaseous or liquid fuels into electrical energy. In a fuel cell, a fuel's electrons and protons separate so the electrons can pass through a circuit to create electricity.

graphite

A black, soft form of carbon that conducts electricity. Graphite is often used in the anode of lithium batteries.

green ammonia

A type of ammonia produced by fully renewable resources and carbon-free processes. Green ammonia is a potential fuel alternative for industries that require heavier vehicles for transportation.

green energy

A type of energy that is produced using methods or resources that cause no harm to the natural environment. Green energy sources include solar, wind, and water power.

greenhouse gas emissions

A harmful byproduct of burning fossil fuels that contributes to climate change. Greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide, are produced by human activity.

hydrogen

H. A colorless, odorless gas that is the most abundant element on the planet. Hydrogen gas is converted into electrical energy in hydrogen fuel cells.

hydrogen fuel cell

A device that uses the chemical energy of hydrogen to produce electrical energy. A hydrogen fuel cell creates energy in the form of electricity and releases heat and water as byproducts.

Li-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries. A type of rechargeable battery that uses a lithium compound as a cathode and, usually, graphite as an anode. Li-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronics and electric vehicles.

limestone

A type of sedimentary rock. Limestone can be used to produce artificial sodium carbonate.

lithium

Li. A lightweight, silver-white metal that is highly reactive. Lithium is the most common element used in electric vehicle battery cathodes and electrolytes.

lithium iron phosphate

A chemical compound consisting of lithium, iron sulfate, and phosphoric acid. Lithium iron phosphate is one of the safest, most stable materials that can be used in battery cathodes.

lithium iron phosphate batteries

LiFePO4 batteries. A type of rechargeable battery that contains lithium iron phosphate in the cathode and graphite, a form of carbon, in the anode. Lithium iron phosphate batteries are durable batteries that are resistant to thermal runaway.

lithium-ion batteries

Li-ion batteries. A type of rechargeable battery that uses a lithium compound as a cathode and, usually, graphite as an anode. Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronics and electric vehicles.

lithium-sulfur batteries

Li-S batteries. A type of rechargeable battery that contains sulfur in the cathode and lithium in the anode. Lithium-sulfur batteries have higher energy density than lithium-ion batteries.

methanol

A toxic, colorless, flammable liquid alcohol often made from wood. Methanol is a renewable energy source that can be used as vehicle fuel or in fuel cells.

mining

Extracting raw materials from the earth. Mining is the first step to obtaining metals used in battery production.

national security

The security and defense of a country, including its citizens, economy, and institutions. National security increases when a country limits its dependence on international trade.

natural gas

A fossil fuel source containing carbon. Natural gas can be used in certain fuel cells, though its use produces carbon emissions.

nitrogen

An odorless gas that makes up 78% of breathable air. Nitrogen emissions contribute to levels of smog pollution in the environment.

non-precious metals

A common or inexpensive metallic element. Non-precious metals are also called base metals.

oxidizes

To combine and chemically react with oxygen. As the anode of a battery oxidizes, it releases electrons.

oxygen

O. A colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that naturally exists in the atmosphere. Oxygen exposure can trigger a chemical reaction called oxidation in many substances.

permeable

Allowing liquids or gases to pass through. Permeable electrolytes control the flow of ions between the anode and cathode.

phosphoric acid

A colorless, odorless inorganic compound used in agricultural and industrial settings, as well as in many daily use products. Phosphoric acid is present in the electrolyte of phosphoric acid fuel cells.

phosphoric acid fuel cell

A device that uses the chemical energy of either hydrogen or methanol to produce energy. A phosphoric acid fuel cell creates energy in the form of electricity and releases water as a byproduct.

phosphorous

P. A waxy, non-metallic element that can be either white or red. Phosphorous can be used in sodium-ion battery anodes.

photochemical smog

A mixture of pollutants that creates a brown haze, typically over cities. Photochemical smog forms when nitrogen oxidizes and reacts with sunlight.

potassium hydroxide

A highly toxic and corrosive chemical often used in making soap, bleaching, and removing paint. Potassium hydroxide is present in the electrolyte of alkaline fuel cells.

range

The distance an electric vehicle can travel before it runs out of fuel or charge. The range a vehicle can reach depends on many factors, including a battery’s energy density and age.

rechargeable batteries

A battery that can be recharged. Rechargeable batteries, or secondary cell batteries, are charged by running electrical current back through them to restore their chemical energy and are found in technology like electric vehicles, smartphones, and laptops.

redox-inactive barrier

A barrier that prevents material from undergoing a reaction. A redox-inactive barrier can reduce the corrosion of sulfur in lithium-sulfur batteries.

reverse electrolysis

A process during which hydrogen reacts with oxygen in a fuel cell to produce electrical energy. Reverse electrolysis produces electricity, as well as heat and water, which escape as water vapor.

secondary cell batteries

A battery that can be recharged. Secondary cell batteries, or rechargeable batteries, are charged by running electrical current back through them to restore their chemical energy and are found in technology like electric vehicles, smartphones, and laptops.

short circuits

A condition that occurs when current takes a shorter, unintended path between two conductors, interrupting the intended flow of electricity. Short circuits cause excess current flow, which can destroy electronic components and cause fires and shock.

shuttling

A process during which sulfur dissolves and causes corrosion. Shuttling is one of the main problems preventing wide-scale use of lithium-sulfur batteries.

sodium

Na. A soft, silver-white metal. Sodium does not occur naturally by itself, but rather in combined forms.

sodium carbonate

A white, odorless, soluble salt compound consisting of sodium, carbon, and oxygen. Sodium carbonate is one of the most important materials for constructing a sodium-ion battery.

sodium-ion batteries

NIB batteries. A type of rechargeable battery that contains sodium in the cathode. Sodium-ion batteries have lower energy density than lithium-ion batteries.

solid-oxide fuel cell

A device that uses the chemical energy of liquid fuel such as natural gas, ethanol, or biogas to produce energy. A solid-oxide fuel cell creates energy in the form of electricity and releases water and carbon dioxide as byproducts.

solid-state battery

A type of rechargeable battery that contains a solid electrolyte and lithium in the cathode and anode. Solid-state batteries are more structurally stable than Li-ion batteries because there is no risk of liquid leaking from the electrolyte.

specific energy

The amount of energy that a battery can supply per unit of weight. High specific energy allows lightweight batteries to supply large amounts of energy.

sulfur

S. A pale, yellow, brittle element. Sulfur is an abundant, inexpensive element, which helps reduce battery production costs when it is used.

thermal runaway

The process of a defective or damaged battery cell overheating and damaging nearby cells, causing them to also overheat. Thermal runaway can cause fires or explosions if not detected and stopped.

vapor

The gaseous form of a substance that is a liquid or solid at normal temperatures. Vapor in the form of steam is created when water is heated.

watt-hours

Wh. A unit of measurement equal to the total amount of energy used to maintain one watt of energy for an hour. A battery with higher watt-hours produces more energy than a battery with lower watt-hours.