Electric Vehicle Production Overview 120

acrylic

An amorphous thermoplastic that is resistant to the damaging effects of weather and ultraviolet light. Acrylics are often used for optical products because they are transparent.

adhesives

A chemical substance used to bond two objects together. Adhesives are used throughout the electric vehicle production process.

aging

A cell finishing process during which completed battery cells are repeatedly charged, discharged, and tested in a temperature-controlled storage area. Aging can last several weeks, requires large amounts of storage space, and typically includes repeated charging, discharging, and testing.

aluminum

A common lightweight, silver-white metal that resists corrosion and is a good conductor of electrical and thermal energy. Aluminum is commonly used as the cathode for lithium-ion batteries.

assembly lines

An arrangement of workstations used to mass-produce products in stages. Assembly lines are a main feature of assembly sites.

automation

The automatic control of equipment, a process, or a system. Automation is an efficient means of performing manufacturing processes.

axles

A rotating shaft attached to a wheel or gear. Axles are used to attach wheels to vehicles.

baking

The process of hardening a coating by placing it in an industrial oven for curing. Baking is done for different types of coatings to ensure they dry fully.

balancing

The distribution of components evenly around the axis of rotation in a rotor. Balancing a rotor ensures that the rotor functions properly without excess vibration.

ball bearings

A rolling-element containing metal balls placed between two parts. A ball bearing allows machine parts to move with little friction.

bath

A tank containing a chemical solution for coating a car body. Baths are a part of the electrodeposition coating process.

battery management system

BMS. A computer that monitors, regulates, and coordinates the operations of a battery pack. The battery management system helps to prevent overheating and thermal runaway.

battery packs

A group of battery cells connected together to produce large amounts of electrical energy. Battery packs may also include components such as sensors and battery management systems.

bolts

A cylindrical threaded fastener with a head that usually mates with a nut. Bolts typically have blunt ends.

bottlenecks

A point of congestion during the production process. Bottlenecks limit the flow of production and can be easily identified with machine learning models.

calendering

The process of compressing dried electrode coatings with heavy rollers to create an even thickness and improve atomic structure. Calendering is the fifth major step in battery cell electrode manufacturing.

calibration

The process of adjusting equipment to ensure accuracy to a measurement standard. Regular calibration is essential for maintaining consistency.

capacity

The amount of energy a battery can provide. Capacity depends on battery materials and volume.

castings

A part formed by pouring or injecting heated material into a mold. Castings have rough surfaces that usually require initial machining, or roughing, before they can be properly finished.

cell assembly

The process of preparing and combining battery cell components, which generally includes winding, packaging, and filling. Cell assembly is the second stage of battery cell manufacturing and comes after electrode manufacturing.

cell chemistry

The chemical composition that influences a battery's energy density, efficiency, cost, and lifecycle. Rechargeable batteries most commonly have lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, and lead-acid cell chemistries.

cell finishing

The process of adding electrolytes to a battery cell, which generally includes filling, aging, and testing. Cell finishing is the third stage of battery cell manufacturing and comes after electrode manufacturing and cell assembly.

cell-module-pack

CMP. A design and assembly process in which a battery is built up from the smallest unit to the outer protective housing. Cell-module-pack batteries start with cells that are assembled into modules, which are placed into packs.

cells

A single unit of a battery. A cell contains a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte solution.

cell-to-body

CTB or C2B. A design and assembly process in which battery cells are installed directly into the chassis of an EV. Cell-to-body batteries, or cell-to-chassis batteries, are structural batteries and often serve a secondary function, such as doubling as the floor of an EV.

cell-to-chassis

CTC or C2C. A design and assembly process in which battery cells are installed directly into the chassis of an EV. Cell-to-chassis batteries, or cell-to-body batteries, are structural batteries and often serve a secondary function, such as doubling as the floor of an EV.

cell-to-pack

CTP or C2P. A design and assembly process in which battery cells are placed directly in a pack. Cell-to-pack batteries eliminate the assembly steps, cost, and extra materials required to wire cells into modules.

chassis

The frame of a machine. The chassis of a car is made of metal and supports the body.

cleanrooms

A room in which temperature, humidity, and air pressure are controlled and maintained. Cleanrooms are important for preventing the contamination of sensitive electronics.

coating

The process of depositing slurry onto electrode current collectors in a thin, even film. Coating is the third major step in battery cell electrode manufacturing.

coatings

A finish used for protective and decorative purposes in manufacturing. Coatings can include different plastics because of their low thermal and electrical conductivity properties.

cobalt

A common alloying element. Cobalt increases a material's thermal resistance and can increase hardness or toughness depending on the material.

coils

A bundle of conducting wire that is wrapped continuously around a magnetic core. Coils create a magnetic field when current passes through them.

collaborative robots

A robot designed to interact with humans in a shared workspace. A collaborative robot, or cobot, can be programmed to learn a specific task in order to assist humans.

computer numerical control

CNC. A programmable system of software and hardware that directs the operation of a machine. Computer numerical control systems use mathematical data to direct machine movements.

contamination

The presence of an unwanted material or substance, such as dust or skin particles, which causes components to function improperly or wear prematurely. Contamination can be prevented by wearing the proper personal protective equipment, cleaning parts, and using cleanrooms.

core

An internal component of a rotor that contains magnets. Cores provide a controlled path for current.

corrosion

A process by which a material gradually degrades or wears away. Corrosion typically occurs when a material is exposed to atmosphere, moisture, or other substances.

curing

The process of hardening a material through exposure to heat or another hardening agent, such as ultraviolet light. Curing is essential to the coating process.

current

The flow of electricity. Current is measured in amperes.

cutting

An electrode cutting process that forms daughter rolls into the correct size and shape for cell assembly. Cutting, like slitting and notching, can be performed by laser cutting or mechanical cutting methods.

cylindrical

A type of rechargeable battery cell enclosed in a rigid, tube-shaped can. Cylindrical cells provide more power than prismatic cells and are common in high-performance applications.

dielectric coating

A type of finish that reduces the ability to conduct electricity on that surface. Dielectric coatings can protect electronic devices from electromagnetic interference.

drivetrain

A group of components that work to move a vehicle's wheel system. The drivetrain of an electric vehicle, often called the electric drive unit, is simplified and electrically driven.

drivetrains

A group of components that work to move a vehicle's wheel system. The drivetrain of an electric vehicle, often called the electric drive unit, is simplified and electrically driven.

drying

The process of evaporating any liquid slurry ingredients or water from the electrode coating. Drying is the fourth major step in battery cell electrode manufacturing and cures active materials and binders to the current collector.

dysprosium

A silver-white, rare-earth metal that resists high temperatures. Dysprosium is used in permanent magnets for its ability to handle high temperatures and resist demagnetization.

electric drive unit

EDU. An electric vehicle component that combines transmission and motor functions in an all-electric design. An electric drive unit is the drivetrain for an electric vehicle, which is simpler than an internal combustion engine drivetrain.

electric vehicle powertrain

A series of automotive and electric powered components that generate and deliver power. Electric vehicle powertrains include the permanent magnet synchronous motor, battery pack, charger, and drivetrain.

electric vehicles

EVs. An automobile or other type of vehicle powered completely by an electrical system. Electric vehicles operate on a battery-powered electric motor that requires recharging stations.

electrical shorts

A type of electrical fault that causes current to flow along an unintended path. Electrical shorts can be prevented using dielectric coatings.

electrode manufacturing

The process of fabricating electrodes for battery cells, which generally includes pre-manufacturing, mixing, coating, drying, calendering, and slitting, cutting, and notching. Electrode manufacturing is the first stage of battery cell manufacturing and comes before cell assembly and cell finishing.

electrodeposition

A process that allows particles to be placed on the surface of conductive materials. Electrodeposition processes are used to apply powdered coatings to an electric vehicle.

electrodes

A component within a circuit that conducts electricity. Electrodes have a positive or negative charge.

electrolyte

A conductive liquid, gel, ceramic, or other solid containing an acid, an alkaline, or a salt. The electrolyte in a battery connects the two electrodes.

electromagnetic field

The area in and around an energized conductor that exhibits electric and magnetic properties. Electromagnetic fields produce forces, the strength of which depends on the strength of the current.

electrostatic field

The area of potential electrical force surrounding an object. Electrostatic fields can cause powdered coatings to adhere to a surface.

emulsifiers

A substance that allows small droplets of one liquid to be suspended in another liquid. Emulsifiers allow oil and water to mix to form a stable solution.

end-of-line

EOL. Occurring after all major production steps and immediately before a product is stored, shipped, or sold. End-of-line procedures, like testing, are a final opportunity for manufacturers to ensure battery quality, safety, and performance.

energy density

A measurement of how much energy a battery can supply per unit of volume. High energy density allows small batteries to supply large amounts of energy.

energy independence

A state in which a country does not need to import energy resources to meet its energy needs. Energy independence can be achieved by using renewable energy resources, improving energy efficiency in infrastructure, increasing energy storage capabilities, and updating the electrical grid.

EV

Electric vehicle. An automobile or other type of vehicle powered completely by an electrical system. EVs operate on a battery-powered electric motor that require recharging stations.

extrusions

A forming operation that forces materials through a small opening in a die. Extrusion is a continuous process that can create parts with a uniform cross section.

filling

A cell assembly step during which liquid electrolyte is added to the enclosed battery cell. Filling uses liquid injection machines to add pre-determined amounts of electrolyte.

fire retardant

The ability to slow down or stop the spread of flames. Fire retardant coatings can help decrease the spread and intensity of flames.

formation

A cell finishing process during which filled batteries are charged for the first time and the solid-electrolyte interface forms. Formation causes the protective SEI layer to form on the anode but also produces gases, which must be removed from pouch cells.

frame chassis

A rigid structure that gives a vehicle its shape and holds important components, such as the engine, powertrain, and body. Frame chassis are more common for internal combustion engine vehicles, but some manufacturers use them for electric vehicles.

frameless chassis

A vehicle design where the skeleton and body of the vehicle are one unit. Frameless chassis are more common for electric vehicles because they are lighter.

gears

A circular, toothed component that engages, rotates, and transmits power to another circular, toothed component when rotated. A gear is usually used as part of a larger energy transfer system, such as a vehicle transmission.

graphite

A black, soft form of carbon that conducts electricity. Graphite is often used in the anode of lithium batteries.

infotainment systems

A collection of hardware and software in vehicles that allows for audio and video. Infotainment systems may come to manufacturers pre-built, requiring only installation.

inspection

The examination of a part during or after its creation to confirm that it adheres to quality specifications. During inspection, defects may be identified and corrected.

insulation

A material that does not conduct electricity and is used to cover electrical conductors. Insulation contains current to prevent excess leakage and other faults.

internal combustion engine

ICE. A type of engine in which heat energy and mechanical energy are produced inside the engine. Internal combustion engines include gas turbines and types of diesel motors.

International Organization for Standardization

ISO. A non-governmental institution that develops and establishes standards, rules, and guidelines designed to ensure that products, processes, and services are fit for their purposes. The International Organization for Standardization is responsible for standards across many different industries.

iron alloy

A common silver-white metal found in nature as ore mixed with one or more elements. Iron is alloyed with carbon to make steel.

jellyrolls

The group of electrode and separator layers that is formed during winding. Jellyrolls are a commonly used term for any roll or stack formed during rolling, stacking, or Z-folding.

ladder design

A type of vehicle chassis that consists of two beams with additional beams across it to hold the important vehicle components. Ladder designs tend to be heavier and are not as common for electric vehicles.

laminations

A thin sheet of metal stacked and sealed with other sheets to form a conductive core. Laminations are used to form the stator and rotor in a permanent-magnet synchronous motor.

laser brazing

A joining process in which a filler metal is melted at a temperature above 840°F (449°C) but below the melting point of the base metals to form a joint using lasers. Laser brazing is more precise than welding and only melts the filler metal.

laser cleaning

A type of noncontact cleaning that uses a fiber laser to remove contaminants from metallic surfaces. Laser cleaning reduces particulate contamination.

laser welding

A welding process that uses an intense beam of light to permanently bond two separate components together. Laser welding is a noncontact welding method used during battery cell manufacturing.

lasers

A device that generates a coherent, collimated, single wavelength of light that can be precisely aimed and controlled. Lasers are used for cutting and welding applications as well as other thermal processes.

lathe

A machine tool commonly used to create cylindrical forms. A lathe holds a cylindrical workpiece on one or both ends while the cutting tool is gradually passed along the surface of the rotating part.

lithium

A lightweight, silver-white metal that is highly reactive. Lithium is often used in batteries because it is extremely energy dense.

lithium-ion batteries

A type of secondary cell battery that uses a lithium compound as a cathode and usually graphite or carbon as an anode. Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronics and electric vehicles.

magnets

A metallic object or substance that possesses a force that attracts or repels other metals. Magnets attract opposite charges and repel like charges.

manganese

A grayish-white, metallic element that is not naturally magnetic but that can easily be magnetized. Manganese is commonly used in lithium-ion battery cathodes.

manufacturing plants

An industrial facility that may consist of multiple buildings where items or parts are manufactured and processed. Manufacturing plants are critical to the production of electric vehicles.

marriage

The stage in the automobile manufacturing process during which the body and chassis are attached to one another. The marriage stage typically involves lowering the body onto the chassis and bolting or welding it into place.

mixing

The process of blending active materials, solvents, and other inactive materials to form an electrode slurry. Mixing is the second major step in battery cell electrode manufacturing, after pre-manufacturing.

modeling

A computer program that models or simulates the operation of a production process or system. Modeling software tests the efficiency of a process and the effects of potential process changes.

modules

A unit that contains several battery cells connected in either series or parallel. Modules are usually surrounded by a hard plastic case.

monocoque chassis

A vehicle construction where the body and chassis are a single structure opposed to being separate components. A monocoque chassis distributes weight across the entire structure and has a lightweight design, making it ideal for electric vehicles.

mylar

A strong, thin type of polyester film invented in the mid-1950s. Mylar paper is used in stator slots to insulate coils.

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

NHTSA. A United States government organization that enforces regulations for vehicle parts and safety testing. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration focuses mostly on vehicle safety regulations.

national security

The security and defense of a country, including its citizens, economy, and institutions. By limiting dependence on international trade, a country can increase its national security.

neodymium

A silver-white, rare-earth metal that can be easily shaped. Neodymium is a key element for the high-quality neodymium iron boron permanent magnets used in some electric motors.

nickel

A corrosion-resistant nonferrous metal. Nickel is commonly added to electrodes and stainless steels to prevent corrosion.

nomex

A flame-resistant fabric often combined with another material to increase strength. Nomex is combined with mylar to form an insulated paper for stator slots.

nuts

A fastener with a threaded hole that mates with a bolt. Nuts are often six-sided to accommodate a tool.

onboard chargers

A device installed in an electric vehicle that converts alternating current collected and stored from a power source into direct current to power the electric motor. Onboard chargers are equipped in fully electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, but not fully hybrid electric vehicles.

packaging

The process of placing a wound electrode into a protective covering and welding it shut. Packaging is sometimes called enclosing or canning during production of prismatic and cylindrical cells.

permanent magnets

A magnet that retains its attractive force after it is removed from a magnetic field. Permanent magnets have high residual magnetism.

permanent-magnet synchronous motors

PMSMs. An alternating current motor that uses permanent magnets embedded in or attached to the rotor and an external supply of alternating current power to the stator to generate a rotating magnetic field. Permanent-magnet synchronous motors are most commonly used in electric vehicles.

plasma cleaning

A type of noncontact cleaning that disperses ionized gas onto a metal surface to remove contaminants. Plasma cleaning can remove contaminants from machine surfaces or material surfaces.

plastics

A lightweight material that generally has high corrosion resistance, a high strength-to-weight ratio, and a low melting point. Plastics, or polymers, are some of the most common manufacturing materials.

PMSM

Permanent-magnet synchronous motor. An alternating current motor that uses permanent magnets imbedded in or attached to the rotor and an external supply of alternating current power to the stator to generate a rotating magnetic field. PMSMs are most commonly used in electric vehicles.

pouch

A type of battery cell enclosed in a flexible, multi-layer foil wrapper. Pouch cells are lightweight and most commonly used in portable devices like laptops and smartphones.

powdered coatings

A type of finish that applies small particles to a surface, opposed to liquid paint. Powdered coatings are applied electrostatically and cured with heat from ultraviolet light.

power converters

An electrical control device used to change electrical power from one form to another. Some power converters change alternating current to direct current and vice versa.

powertrains

A series of automotive components that generate and deliver power. Powertrains include an engine, transmission, and other components.

pre-manufacturing

The process of designing battery cell components and acquiring materials for fabricating battery cell electrodes. Pre-manufacturing is the first step of electrode manufacturing.

primer

A substance used to prepare the surface of a vehicle or vehicle component before painting. Primer ensures the even application of a top coat on a vehicle.

printed circuit boards

PCBs. A layered construction of conductive and nonconductive material used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components. Printed circuit boards require soldering to join electrical components to the board.

prismatic

A type of rechargeable battery cell enclosed in a rigid, rectangular can. Prismatic cells are easy to stack and store more energy per cell than cylindrical cells.

quality assurance

A system of managing quality by regulating the quality of materials, assembly processes, products, and components. Quality assurance is a proactive approach to preventing errors.

quality checks

The process of determining whether a device is in compliance with standards. Quality checks help to ensure that a device is working properly.

quality control

A system of managing quality by inspecting finished products to make sure they meet specifications. Quality control relies on error detection and correction.

range

The maximum distance an electric vehicle can travel on a fully charged battery. Rechargeable batteries must provide a reasonable, consistent range for their price and energy density in a variety of environmental conditions.

rare-earth elements

One of seventeen known chemical elements found in the earth's crust and various minerals. Rare-earth elements like neodymium and dysprosium are used in the production of electric vehicle motors.

raw materials

An unprocessed material that has not been manufactured. Raw materials include metals that occur naturally in the earth.

recyclability

The ability to be reused or repurposed at the end of its useful lifecycle to minimize waste, pollution, and resource use. Recyclability influences electric battery design choices such as cell chemistry, size, and pack materials.

recycling

Reprocessing and reusing materials from a rechargeable battery. Recycling reduces damage to the environment by reducing the number of batteries being disposed of as waste, minimizing toxic waste from batteries, and decreasing mining practices.

resistance welding

A welding process that uses the heat of electrical resistance to permanently join two separate components together. Resistance welding is a contact welding method used during battery cell manufacturing, most commonly for manufacturing cylindrical cells.

riveting

The fastening of metal plates using rivets. Riveting is used to manufacture an electric vehicle's chassis.

rust

A reddish-brown substance caused by a ferrous metal's reaction with moisture and oxygen. Rust is the general term for iron oxide.

sealant

A material or liquid that provides an airtight or watertight barrier. Sealants protect vehicle joints from rust.

semiconductors

A material that restricts electrons but still allows them to flow. Semiconductors are used in the power electronic converter that manages power distribution levels throughout an EV.

sensors

A device that detects a change in a physical condition and turns it into an electrical signal. Sensors are common devices that respond to variable conditions, such as pressure, temperature, or flow.

shafts

A cylindrical bar used to support rotating components in a mechanical system. Shafts also transmit mechanical energy and motion.

simulation

A computer creation of a virtual space and activity. Simulations allow engineers to design rechargeable batteries and predict how they will perform before designs are implemented in production.

skateboard chassis

A platform that contains essential vehicle components in a compact form. Skateboard chassis are increasingly common for electric vehicles because they are light-weight and enable different vehicle body types.

spray robots

A machine programmed to paint in different axes. Spray robots can efficiently and precisely spray coatings or paint onto electric vehicles.

stacked

A winding technique that layers individual electrode and separator sheets. Stacking is best for prismatic and pouch cell batteries.

stamping press

A machine tool that moves up and down continuously to cut and shape sheet metal using a die set. Stamping presses often require dual palm buttons for starting.

stator

The stationary part of a motor. The stator contains windings and generates the magnetic field.

stator slots

An opening in the stator that contains windings of electrical coils. Stator slots are insulated with paper to improve conductivity and increase heat resistance.

steel

A ferrous metal consisting of iron and carbon, usually with small amounts of manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon. Steels are the most common metal used in manufacturing.

thermal runaway

The process of a defective or damaged battery cell overheating and damaging nearby cells, causing them to also overheat. Thermal runaway can lead to fires or explosions and cause damaged batteries to release toxic gases.

Tier 1 suppliers

The group of suppliers that provide major systems and modules to manufacturers. Tier 1 suppliers produce parts like drivetrains, battery packs, and infotainment systems.

Tier 2 suppliers

The group of suppliers that provide parts and components to other members of the supply chain. Tier 2 suppliers produce parts like mechanical power components and electronics.

Tier 3 suppliers

The group of suppliers that provide materials and small parts to other members of the supply chain. Tier 3 suppliers produce parts like bearings and fasteners.

ultrasonic welding

A welding process that uses high-frequency sound waves to permanently join two separate components together. Ultrasonic welding is a noncontact welding method used during battery cell manufacturing.

ultraviolet curable

A type of coating that can be hardened using ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet curable coatings are considered environmentally friendly and provide scratch and chemical resistance.

ultraviolet light

UV light. Light that is invisible to the human eye because it consists of wavelengths shorter than those of visible light. Ultraviolet light can be used during the curing process for coatings or paint.

Underwriters Laboratories

UL. A private company that is certified to perform product safety testing and certification for Occupational Safety Health Administration and other government agencies. Underwriters Laboratories publishes safety testing standards for lithium-ion batteries.

urethane

A manufactured thermoset that is made of isocyanate and alcohol, which are mixed together and undergo a chemical reaction to enable curing. Urethane coatings are used on cars to protect the vehicle from water, chemicals, and sunlight.

vision-guided robots

A robot equipped with an image sensor or vision system. Vision-guided robots perform tasks with greater accuracy than human operators.

visual inspection

A visual assessment of surface defects. Visual inspection involves closely examining a part or product with the naked eye to check for defects.

welding

A joining process that permanently bonds together two or more pieces of metal with heat, pressure, and current or a combination of those elements. Welding is often performed by industrial robots.

winding

The process of layering electrodes and separators to create a stack or roll that matches the size and shape of the finished battery cell. Winding may also be called rolling, stacking, folding, or other terms, depending on the cell geometry and processes used.

wire harnesses

A collection of wires organized and bundled according to function. A wire harness, also known as a wire harness assembly, facilitates easy installation and saves space.